Semaglutide injection shortage history
FDA · FDA Drug Shortage Database · 2025
ReviewDocuments the ongoing supply constraints for semaglutide injection products, which have driven demand for compounded alternatives.
Research Library
Curated studies from the published peptide literature
Compound
Study Type
78 studies across 14 compounds
Ozempic (semaglutide) prescribing information
Novo Nordisk · FDA Prescribing Information · 2024
ReviewOfficial prescribing information for Ozempic (semaglutide injection) for the treatment of type 2 diabetes, documenting approved indications, dosing, and safety data.
Wegovy (semaglutide) prescribing information
Novo Nordisk · FDA Prescribing Information · 2024
ReviewOfficial prescribing information for Wegovy (semaglutide injection) for chronic weight management, documenting the 2.4 mg dosing regimen, efficacy data, and safety profile.
Tirzepatide after intensive lifestyle intervention (SURMOUNT-3)
Wadden TA, et al. · Nature Medicine · 2024
Human RCTSURMOUNT-3 demonstrated tirzepatide maintained and extended weight loss after intensive lifestyle intervention, supporting its role as a long-term weight management tool.
Mounjaro (tirzepatide) prescribing information
Eli Lilly · FDA Prescribing Information · 2024
ReviewOfficial prescribing information for Mounjaro (tirzepatide injection) for type 2 diabetes, documenting the dual GIP/GLP-1 mechanism, dosing, and clinical trial results.
Zepbound (tirzepatide) prescribing information
Eli Lilly · FDA Prescribing Information · 2024
ReviewOfficial prescribing information for Zepbound (tirzepatide injection) for chronic weight management, including efficacy data from the SURMOUNT trial program.
Semaglutide and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Obesity without Diabetes
Lincoff AM, et al. · New England Journal of Medicine · 2023
Human RCTThe SELECT trial demonstrated semaglutide reduced major cardiovascular events by 20% in people with obesity but without diabetes, establishing cardiovascular benefit independent of glucose control.
Tirzepatide once weekly for obesity in people with type 2 diabetes (SURMOUNT-2)
Garvey WT, et al. · The Lancet · 2023
Human RCTSURMOUNT-2 showed tirzepatide produced significant weight loss in people with obesity and type 2 diabetes, with up to 14.7% mean body weight reduction.
Cardiovascular Safety of Testosterone-Replacement Therapy
Lincoff AM, et al. · New England Journal of Medicine · 2023
Human RCTThe TRAVERSE trial demonstrated testosterone replacement therapy was non-inferior to placebo for major adverse cardiovascular events, largely resolving long-standing cardiovascular safety concerns.
Tirzepatide Once Weekly for the Treatment of Obesity
Jastreboff AM, et al. · New England Journal of Medicine · 2022
Human RCTSURMOUNT-1 demonstrated tirzepatide produced up to 22.5% mean weight loss at the highest dose in adults with obesity, the largest weight reduction achieved by any anti-obesity medication.
Nicotinamide mononucleotide increases muscle insulin sensitivity in prediabetic women
Yoshino M, et al. · Science · 2021
Human RCTNMN supplementation improved muscle insulin sensitivity in prediabetic women, providing the first human evidence that NAD+ precursors can improve metabolic outcomes.
Once-Weekly Semaglutide in Adults with Overweight or Obesity
Wilding JPH, et al. · New England Journal of Medicine · 2021
Human RCTThe STEP 1 trial showed once-weekly semaglutide 2.4 mg produced a mean weight loss of 14.9% vs 2.4% with placebo in adults with overweight or obesity.
Semaglutide 2.4 mg once a week in adults with overweight or obesity, and type 2 diabetes (STEP 2)
Davies M, et al. · The Lancet · 2021
Human RCTSTEP 2 demonstrated semaglutide 2.4 mg produced superior weight loss compared to semaglutide 1.0 mg and placebo in adults with overweight/obesity and type 2 diabetes.
Effect of Subcutaneous Semaglutide vs Placebo as an Adjunct to Intensive Behavioral Therapy (STEP 3)
Wadden TA, et al. · JAMA · 2021
Human RCTSTEP 3 showed semaglutide combined with intensive behavioral therapy produced 16% mean weight loss, demonstrating additive benefits of pharmacotherapy and lifestyle intervention.
Tirzepatide versus Semaglutide Once Weekly in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes
Frias JP, et al. · New England Journal of Medicine · 2021
Human RCTSURPASS-2 head-to-head trial demonstrated tirzepatide was superior to semaglutide 1 mg for both HbA1c reduction and weight loss in patients with type 2 diabetes.
Effects of tesamorelin on neuronal amyloid-beta deposition and cognitive function in people with HIV
Fourman LT, et al. · Journal of Infectious Diseases · 2020
Human RCTTesamorelin reduced neuronal amyloid-beta deposition and improved cognitive function in HIV patients, suggesting potential neuroprotective applications.
NAD+ therapy in age-related degenerative disorders: A benefit/risk analysis
Braidy N, Liu Y · Experimental Gerontology · 2020
ReviewBenefit/risk analysis of NAD+ therapy in age-related degenerative disorders, concluding the therapeutic potential is promising but long-term safety data in humans remains limited.
Nicotinamide riboside does not alter mitochondrial respiration, content or morphology in skeletal muscle from obese and insulin-resistant men
Dollerup OL, et al. · Journal of Physiology · 2020
Human RCTNR supplementation in obese insulin-resistant men did not alter skeletal muscle mitochondrial function, highlighting a gap between animal model promise and human clinical outcomes.
Rapamycin for longevity: opinion article
Blagosklonny MV · Aging (Albany NY) · 2019
ReviewInfluential opinion article arguing that intermittent low-dose rapamycin may extend human lifespan with an acceptable risk profile, synthesizing the mechanistic and preclinical evidence.
Clomiphene citrate for male infertility and hypogonadism
Rodriguez KM, et al. · Seminars in Reproductive Medicine · 2019
ReviewReview of clomiphene citrate use in male infertility and hypogonadism, covering the evidence base for SERM-based testosterone optimization as an alternative to TRT.
The Safety and Efficacy of Growth Hormone Secretagogues
Sigalos JT, Pastuszak AW · Sexual Medicine Reviews · 2018
ReviewComprehensive review concluding that GH secretagogues including CJC-1295 and Ipamorelin offer a potentially safer alternative to exogenous GH administration for male health and body composition.
Therapeutic potential of NAD-boosting molecules: the in vivo evidence
Rajman L, et al. · Cell Metabolism · 2018
ReviewComprehensive review of in vivo evidence for NAD-boosting molecules, summarizing benefits across metabolic, cardiovascular, neurological, and aging models.
Chronic nicotinamide riboside supplementation is well-tolerated and elevates NAD+ in healthy middle-aged and older adults
Martens CR, et al. · Nature Communications · 2018
Human RCTChronic NR supplementation was well-tolerated and successfully elevated NAD+ levels in healthy middle-aged and older adults, with trends toward reduced blood pressure and arterial stiffness.
A randomized control trial to establish effects of short-term rapamycin treatment in 24 middle-aged companion dogs
Kraig E, et al. · GeroScience · 2018
AnimalShort-term rapamycin treatment in middle-aged companion dogs showed improved cardiac function, supporting translational relevance of mTOR inhibition for aging.
TORC1 inhibition enhances immune function and reduces infections in the elderly
Mannick JB, et al. · Science Translational Medicine · 2018
Human RCTTORC1 inhibitor combination reduced infection rates in elderly subjects by approximately 40%, demonstrating that mTOR inhibition can enhance rather than suppress immune function at low doses.
From mitochondrial function to neuroprotection — an emerging role for methylene blue
Tucker D, et al. · Molecular Neurobiology · 2018
ReviewReview tracing the emerging evidence connecting methylene blue's mitochondrial enhancement properties to broader neuroprotective applications in aging and neurodegeneration.
BPC 157 and Standard Angiogenic Growth Factors
Seiwerth S, et al. · Current Pharmaceutical Design · 2018
ReviewCharacterized BPC-157's interactions with standard angiogenic growth factors, demonstrating its ability to modulate VEGF, FGF, and other growth factor pathways involved in tissue repair.
Testosterone Therapy in Men with Hypogonadism: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline
Bhasin S, et al. · Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism · 2018
ReviewDefinitive clinical practice guideline establishing evidence-based recommendations for testosterone therapy diagnosis, treatment initiation, monitoring, and risk management in hypogonadal men.
Testosterone products: drug safety communication — FDA cautions about using testosterone products for low testosterone due to aging
FDA · FDA Drug Safety Communication · 2018
ReviewFDA safety communication cautioning about testosterone use for age-related low testosterone, requiring label changes to clarify approved indications and cardiovascular risk warnings.
Oral enclomiphene citrate raises testosterone and preserves sperm counts in obese hypogonadal men
Kim ED, et al. · BJU International · 2016
Human RCTConfirmed oral enclomiphene raises testosterone while preserving sperm counts in obese hypogonadal men, reinforcing its advantage over exogenous testosterone for fertility preservation.
Brain-gut axis and pentadecapeptide BPC 157: theoretical and practical implications
Sikiric P, et al. · Current Neuropharmacology · 2016
ReviewReview exploring BPC-157's effects on the brain-gut axis, documenting its influence on dopaminergic, serotonergic, and GABAergic systems alongside gastrointestinal protection.
Semaglutide and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes
Marso SP, et al. · New England Journal of Medicine · 2016
Human RCTThe SUSTAIN-6 trial demonstrated semaglutide significantly reduced major adverse cardiovascular events by 26% in patients with type 2 diabetes at high cardiovascular risk.
Effects of Testosterone Treatment in Older Men
Snyder PJ, et al. · New England Journal of Medicine · 2016
Human RCTThe Testosterone Trials (TTrials) demonstrated testosterone treatment in older men with low levels improved sexual function, physical function, and vitality, with modest bone density benefits.
Testosterone supplementation and body composition: meta-analysis
Corona G, et al. · Journal of Endocrinological Investigation · 2016
Meta-analysisMeta-analysis demonstrating testosterone supplementation consistently improves body composition with increased lean mass and reduced fat mass across multiple studies.
GHK-Cu may prevent oxidative stress in skin
Pickart L, et al. · Cosmetics · 2015
ReviewReviewed evidence that GHK-Cu protects against oxidative stress in skin through antioxidant enzyme upregulation and free radical scavenging, supporting its anti-aging applications.
The GHK-Cu Tripeptide Modifies Expression of Genes Relevant to Nervous System Function
Campbell JD, et al. · British Journal of Medicine and Medical Research · 2015
In VitroGHK-Cu modified expression of genes relevant to nervous system function, suggesting potential neurological applications beyond its established dermatological benefits.
Effect of tesamorelin on visceral fat and liver fat in HIV-infected patients with abdominal fat accumulation
Stanley TL, et al. · Annals of Internal Medicine · 2014
Human RCTTesamorelin reduced both visceral and hepatic fat in HIV-infected patients, suggesting benefits beyond simple fat redistribution including liver health improvements.
mTOR inhibition improves immune function in the elderly
Mannick JB, et al. · Science Translational Medicine · 2014
Human RCTLow-dose mTOR inhibition with the rapamycin analog RAD001 improved immune function in elderly volunteers, enhancing response to influenza vaccination by approximately 20%.
Rapamycin-mediated lifespan increase in mice is dose and sex dependent and metabolically distinct from dietary restriction
Miller RA, et al. · Aging Cell · 2014
AnimalRapamycin lifespan extension in mice was dose and sex dependent and operated through metabolic pathways distinct from dietary restriction, suggesting unique longevity mechanisms.
Enclomiphene citrate stimulates testosterone production while preventing oligospermia: a randomized phase II clinical trial comparing topical testosterone
Wiehle RD, et al. · BJU International · 2014
Human RCTEnclomiphene citrate raised testosterone levels comparably to topical testosterone while preserving sperm counts, unlike TRT which significantly reduced spermatogenesis.
Methylene blue upregulates Nrf2/ARE genes and prevents tau-related neurotoxicity
Stack C, et al. · Human Molecular Genetics · 2014
AnimalMethylene blue upregulated the Nrf2/ARE antioxidant defense pathway and prevented tau-related neurotoxicity, suggesting potential applications in Alzheimer's disease.
Enclomiphene citrate raises testosterone and preserves sperm counts in obese hypogonadal men, unlike topical testosterone
Kaminetsky J, et al. · Journal of Sexual Medicine · 2013
Human RCTEnclomiphene raised testosterone and preserved sperm counts in obese hypogonadal men, providing evidence for fertility-preserving testosterone optimization.
Enclomiphene citrate stimulates serum testosterone in men with low testosterone
Wiehle R, et al. · Clinical Endocrinology · 2013
Human RCTEnclomiphene citrate effectively stimulated endogenous testosterone production in men with low testosterone levels through HPT axis modulation.
Thymosin beta4: a multi-functional regenerative peptide. Basic properties and clinical applications
Goldstein AL, et al. · Expert Opinion on Biological Therapy · 2012
ReviewComprehensive review summarizing thymosin beta-4's multi-functional regenerative properties across wound healing, cardiac repair, neurological protection, and anti-inflammatory pathways.
Neurometabolic mechanisms for memory enhancement and neuroprotection of methylene blue
Rojas JC, et al. · Progress in Neurobiology · 2012
ReviewComprehensive review of methylene blue's neurometabolic mechanisms, detailing how it enhances mitochondrial function and memory through its role as an alternative electron carrier.
Neuroprotective actions of methylene blue and its derivatives
Poteet E, et al. · PLoS One · 2012
In VitroDemonstrated neuroprotective actions of methylene blue and its derivatives through mitochondrial enhancement and reduction of oxidative stress in neuronal cell models.
Nicotinamide mononucleotide, a key NAD+ intermediate, treats the pathophysiology of diet- and age-induced diabetes in mice
Yoshino J, et al. · Cell Metabolism · 2011
AnimalNMN supplementation restored NAD+ levels and reversed metabolic dysfunction in diet- and age-induced diabetic mice, establishing the therapeutic potential of NAD+ repletion.
Cellular and molecular actions of methylene blue in the nervous system
Oz M, et al. · Medicinal Research Reviews · 2011
ReviewDetailed review of methylene blue's cellular and molecular mechanisms in the nervous system, including monoamine oxidase inhibition and mitochondrial electron transport chain modulation.
The promoting effect of pentadecapeptide BPC 157 on tendon healing involves tendon outgrowth, cell survival, and cell migration
Chang CH, et al. · Journal of Applied Physiology · 2011
AnimalBPC-157 promoted tendon healing through multiple mechanisms including tendon outgrowth, enhanced cell survival, and increased cell migration to the injury site.
Effects of tesamorelin (TH9507), a growth hormone-releasing factor analog, in HIV-infected patients with excess abdominal fat
Falutz J, et al. · Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism · 2010
Human RCTConfirmed tesamorelin's efficacy in reducing trunk fat and improving lipid profiles in HIV patients with abdominal fat accumulation, supporting FDA approval.
Effects of growth hormone-releasing hormone on visceral fat, metabolic profile, and cardiovascular risk markers
Makimura H, et al. · Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism · 2010
Human RCTGHRH analog administration improved visceral fat, metabolic profile, and cardiovascular risk markers, broadening the potential therapeutic applications of tesamorelin.
Rapamycin fed late in life extends lifespan in genetically heterogeneous mice
Harrison DE, et al. · Nature · 2009
AnimalRapamycin extended lifespan in genetically heterogeneous mice even when started late in life, establishing it as the most consistently replicated lifespan-extending compound in mammals.
Effects of an oral ghrelin mimetic on body composition and clinical outcomes in healthy older adults
Nass R, et al. · Annals of Internal Medicine · 2008
Human RCTTwo-year MK-677 treatment in healthy older adults increased GH and IGF-1 to young-adult levels, increased fat-free mass, but did not improve functional endpoints.
The human tri-peptide GHK and tissue remodeling
Pickart L, et al. · Journal of Biomaterials Science, Polymer Edition · 2008
ReviewComprehensive review of GHK's tissue remodeling properties, documenting its ability to promote wound healing, attract immune cells, stimulate collagen synthesis, and promote angiogenesis.
Metabolic effects of a growth hormone-releasing factor in patients with HIV
Falutz J, et al. · New England Journal of Medicine · 2007
Human RCTPivotal trial demonstrating tesamorelin significantly reduced visceral adipose tissue in HIV-infected patients with lipodystrophy, establishing its primary clinical indication.
Prolonged stimulation of growth hormone (GH) and insulin-like growth factor I secretion by CJC-1295, a long-acting analog of GH-releasing hormone, in healthy adults
Teichman SL, et al. · Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism · 2006
Human RCTA single subcutaneous injection of CJC-1295 with DAC produced dose-dependent, sustained GH elevation for up to 6 days and IGF-1 elevation for 9-11 days in healthy adults.
CJC-1295: duration of action
Ionescu M, Bhatt DL · Endocrine Society Annual Meeting · 2006
Human ObservationalCharacterized the extended duration of GH and IGF-1 elevation following CJC-1295 with DAC administration, supporting once-weekly or twice-weekly dosing protocols.
Sermorelin: a better approach to management of adult-onset growth hormone insufficiency?
Walker RF · Clinical Interventions in Aging · 2006
ReviewArgued that sermorelin represents a physiologically superior approach to adult GH insufficiency compared to exogenous GH, by preserving natural pulsatile GH release and feedback regulation.
Thymosin beta 4 promotes angiogenesis, wound healing, and hair follicle development
Philp D, et al. · FASEB Journal · 2004
AnimalDemonstrated thymosin beta-4's ability to promote angiogenesis and activate stem cells, establishing its broader regenerative potential beyond hair growth.
Thymosin beta4 activates integrin-linked kinase and promotes cardiac cell migration, survival and cardiac repair
Bock-Marquette I, et al. · Nature · 2004
AnimalLandmark study demonstrating thymosin beta-4 promoted cardiac repair after myocardial infarction in mice via activation of the integrin-linked kinase (ILK)/Akt survival pathway.
Gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157 accelerates healing of transected rat Achilles tendon
Staresinic M, et al. · Journal of Orthopaedic Research · 2003
AnimalBPC-157 significantly accelerated healing of transected Achilles tendons in rats, establishing its musculoskeletal repair potential beyond the gastrointestinal tract.
Thymosin beta 4 promotes corneal wound healing and decreases inflammation in vivo following alkali injury
Sosne G, et al. · Experimental Eye Research · 2002
AnimalThymosin beta-4 accelerated corneal wound healing and significantly reduced inflammation following alkali injury in a rat model, establishing dual wound-healing and anti-inflammatory properties.
Copper peptide and skin
Leyden J, et al. · Cosmetic Dermatology · 2002
Human ObservationalDemonstrated copper peptide (GHK-Cu) improved skin appearance including thickness, elasticity, and fine lines in human subjects.
Expression of glycosaminoglycans and small proteoglycans in wounds: modulation by GHK-Cu
Simeon A, et al. · Journal of Investigative Dermatology · 2000
AnimalGHK-Cu modulated glycosaminoglycan and proteoglycan expression in wounds, demonstrating its ability to regulate extracellular matrix remodeling during tissue repair.
Thymosin beta4 accelerates wound healing
Malinda KM, et al. · Journal of Investigative Dermatology · 1999
AnimalTopical thymosin beta-4 accelerated dermal wound healing in aged mice, with increased angiogenesis, collagen deposition, and keratinocyte migration.
Ipamorelin, a new growth-hormone-releasing peptide, induces growth hormone secretion in healthy volunteers
Johansen PB, et al. · Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism · 1999
Human RCTIntravenous Ipamorelin produced robust, dose-dependent GH release in healthy male volunteers with no significant changes in cortisol, prolactin, or ACTH, confirming its selectivity profile in humans.
Sermorelin: a review of its use in the diagnosis and treatment of children with idiopathic growth hormone deficiency
Prakash A, Goa KL · BioDrugs · 1999
ReviewComprehensive review of sermorelin's clinical use in pediatric GH deficiency, documenting its diagnostic and therapeutic applications with established safety and efficacy data.
Stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157: Novel therapy in gastrointestinal tract
Sikiric P, et al. · Current Pharmaceutical Design · 1999
ReviewFoundational review establishing BPC-157 as a novel gastrointestinal therapy with cytoprotective, anti-inflammatory, and wound-healing properties across multiple GI models.
Osteogenic effect of a gastric pentadecapeptide, BPC-157, on the healing of segmental bone defect in rabbits
Sebecic B, et al. · Journal of Physiology · 1999
AnimalBPC-157 promoted bone healing in segmental bone defects in rabbits, extending its demonstrated tissue repair properties to bone regeneration.
Ipamorelin, the first selective growth hormone secretagogue
Raun K, et al. · European Journal of Endocrinology · 1998
AnimalLandmark selectivity study demonstrating Ipamorelin stimulates GH release without affecting ACTH, cortisol, prolactin, FSH, LH, or TSH, even at very high doses — establishing it as fundamentally different from other GHRPs.
Effect of alendronate and MK-677 on markers of bone turnover and bone mineral density in postmenopausal women
Murphy MG, et al. · Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism · 1998
Human RCTMK-677 combined with alendronate improved markers of bone turnover and bone mineral density in postmenopausal women, supporting its potential for osteoporosis management.
Two-month treatment of obese subjects with the oral growth hormone secretagogue MK-677 increases GH secretion, fat-free mass, and energy expenditure
Svensson J, et al. · Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism · 1998
Human RCTTwo-month oral MK-677 in obese subjects increased GH secretion, fat-free mass, and energy expenditure, supporting potential body composition benefits.
Effects of single nightly injections of growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH 1-29) in healthy elderly men
Vittone J, et al. · Metabolism · 1997
Human RCTSingle nightly GHRH 1-29 injections in healthy elderly men demonstrated the feasibility of restoring youthful GH pulsatility through secretagogue administration.
Activation of immune function by dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) in age-advanced men
Khorram O, et al. · Journal of Gerontology A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences · 1997
Human RCTDemonstrated activation of immune function in age-advanced men, providing context for hormonal optimization strategies including GH secretagogue therapy.
Effects of a 7-day treatment with a novel, orally active, growth hormone secretagogue, MK-677, on 24-hour GH profiles
Copinschi G, et al. · Neuroendocrinology · 1997
Human RCTSeven-day oral MK-677 treatment restored 24-hour GH secretory profiles in subjects, demonstrating sustained efficacy of oral GH secretagogue administration.
Pentadecapeptide BPC 157 and its effects on a NSAID toxicity model
Sikiric P, et al. · European Journal of Pharmacology · 1997
AnimalBPC-157 demonstrated protective effects against NSAID-induced gastrointestinal toxicity in animal models, supporting its role as a cytoprotective agent.
Stimulation of the GH-IGF-I axis by daily oral administration of a GH secretagogue (MK-677) in healthy elderly subjects
Chapman IM, et al. · Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism · 1996
Human RCTDaily oral MK-677 significantly stimulated GH and IGF-1 levels in healthy elderly subjects, with GH pulsatility restored to young-adult patterns.
Continuous subcutaneous infusions of growth hormone (GH)-releasing hormone 1-29 for 14 days increase GH and insulin-like growth factor-I levels in old men
Corpas E, et al. · Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism · 1993
Human RCTFourteen-day continuous subcutaneous GHRH 1-29 infusion significantly increased GH and IGF-1 levels in elderly men, demonstrating sustained efficacy of GHRH stimulation.